Australian Social Class Essays

Australian Social Class Essays Australian Social Class Paper Australian Social Class Paper Life chances include access to resources such as lath, education, occupation, housing and health. An individuals opportunities to access such resources vary according to social classes. To illustrate the extent to which a persons social class impacts on his or her life chances in Australia, this paper will begin with an examination of social class, including the major theories behind the concept of class. Life chances will also be defined, as will inequality and social mobility within Australia. Finally, evidence on how social class (particularly socio-economic status) Impacts life chances will be considered. Social class can be described as the hierarchical grouping of Individuals based on their economic position. While Australia is often described as an egalitarian society that is free of class barriers, Holmes et al argues that The rhetoric of equality becomes incomprehensible when basic measurements of inequality are looked at in any detail (Holmes, Hughes, Julian 2006 p. 91). According to data gathered by the United Nations Development Program, Australia is the worlds fifth-most unequal developed nation. Between the mid sasss and mid sasss, incomes of the top 20% of earners grew four times faster than that of the bottom 20%. Mishmash 2009, The Age 16 Gauge 2009). A study by Andrew Leigh revealed that in the early 1 asss, a CEO In a top 50 company earned 27 times more than the national average; only a decade later it was 98 times more. While these figures represent significant inequality wealth Australia, Elegies study also revealed that the Inequality gap In accumulated wealth Is twice as wide as it is in take home pay (Mishmash 2009, The Age 1 6 Gauge 2009). The existence of class within Australia can be explained from various theoretical perspectives, most of which are based on the class theories of Marx and Weber. Marx identified a two-class model, including an upper / ruling class that own the means of production and a working class that provide the labor for the ruling class. Weber expanded on Mars theory with the addition of two middle classes and also identified other indicators of class from within the social order that are more transparent, such as status groups. ASPI defines status as a system in which people are ranked on the basis of the amount of honor, prestige or esteem they receive (ASPI 1996 pop) While status differences can Influence variations In lifestyle, ASPI argues that It Is class differences that Influence life chances. Socio-economic status refers to a combination of the dimensions of class and status, of which wealth Is a central determinant. Almost all class theories recognize the existence of a ruling class, middle class and working class in Australia, however there is now debate over the existence of an underclass, consisting of the permanently unemployed and low income earners. The upper class consists of the wealthiest 5-10% of the population, whose wealth comes from the control of property and capital. ASPI argues that those who own and intro the economic resources are in a position to make important decisions about their own lives and the lives of other people, and often therefore determine the life chances of others (ASPI 1996 p. 77). The middle class consists mainly of individuals with non manual occupations and can be broken down to include upper middle class (professions egg doctors, dentists, lawyers etc) and lower middle class (routine white collar Jobs). The working class has been distinguished by its non ownership of the means of production. According to Marx, their role is to provide labor power to the lulling class. Traditionally consisting of manual workers and consistent with low income, the inferior market situation of this class is reflected in life chances. According to Van Krieger et al, various studies have shown that manual workers are more likely to die younger, suffer from poor health, miss out on home ownership, be convicted of a criminal offence and have children that do not go on to higher education. Perhaps the key determinant of socio-economic status or social class is wealth. Referring to the total assets or property that a person possesses, ASPI argues that Wealth confers economic and social power; it provides security in times of unexpected expenditure and provides greater freedom of choice in everyday life (ASPI 1996, pop). It is wealth that enables the purchase of assets such as housing and allows access to educational and health facilities. Without these, life chances are inhibited. Evidence suggests that wealth is heavily concentrated in Australia. A 2002 HILLS survey revealed that the bottom half of the population own less than 10% of the total household net worth While the wealthiest 10% account for 45% of total household net worth (Headed, Marks, Wooden 2004 p. L). Wealth is strongly linked to inheritance, thus maintaining its concentration. Just as wealth is linked to inheritance, so too is poverty. According to Orgy Where persons starts in the income and wealth distribution curve has an important bearing on their life chances (Orgy 2006, Pl 7). A 2005 study by The Brotherhood of SST Laurence found that those born into poverty have far higher instances of infant mortality, poor immunization against disease, higher risk of mental health problems, low birth weight babies and youth suicide (Scuttles Smyth, 2005 p ). Within Australia, evidence suggests that an individuals life chances are redundantly determined by his or her ascribed inequalities, such as gender, race and family background. In an a society with equality of opportunity it would be the achieved inequalities such as education, occupation and skills that would determine life chances, however as argued by ASPI He ascribed attribute of family background has a major influence on the education an individual will receive and on ten occupation en/seen wall enter, regardless AT ten telltales AT ten Uninominal (Aspen 1996, pop). The ascribed attribute of family background is a key determinant of social class. Social mobility refers to the ease and frequency by which indiv iduals can move up the social hierarchy to a higher class. Social mobility can occur either within an individuals lifetime (intra-generational mobility) or between generations (inter- generational mobility), and cab be used as a tool to measure the degree of equality within a society. In an egalitarian society, social mobility would be fluid. An individual born into a low social class would not necessarily remain stagnant within that class. This is not the case in most developed countries, including Australia. ASPI argues hat While it is possible in theory to move up the hierarchy, rags to riches stories are very rare and mobility is fairly limited (ASPI 1996, p. 72), while Orgy argues that there is a high degree of inter-generational transmission of poor social and economic outcomes in Australia (Orgy 2006, pop). There are several barriers inhibiting social mobility in Australia, resulting in a cycle of disadvantage for many. Such barriers include income and assets, employment, education, health and housing. The 2005 study by The Brotherhood of SST Laurence revealed that educational opportunities have a significant impact on the lower class. Children born into the underprivileged areas are less likely to have access to pre- schools, less likely to achieve adequacy in literacy and innumeracy tests and more likely to begin and remain in lower paying vocations. Perhaps one of the more compelling examples originates from a study conducted in Victoria and New South Wales that states 25% of all early school leavers come from Just 5% of postcodes (Scuttles and Smyth 2005, p. 17). Limitations on the lower classes to achieve wealth impacts their ability to provide adequate housing for their children. Scuttles and Smyth argue that a child raised without a secure home faces barriers to higher educational achievement and later Job security, which may lead to homeless raising families who in turn become homeless (Scuttles and Smyth 2005, p. 5). There are significant inequalities within Australia, indicating the existence of a hierarchical class structure. Australian society consists of an upper class, a middle class and a working class, although there is also debate on the existence of an underclass. An individuals position within this class structure largely ultimately determines his or her life chances. Opportunities to achieve desirable life outc omes, including wealth, occupation, quality education, good health and housing differ between the social classes. A lack of social mobility in Australia means social class in Australia operates cyclically. Those born into economic disadvantage are not only likely to remain that way, but will also eventually pass on their economic circumstances to their offspring. Similarly, those born into higher socio-economic families are more likely to have access to quality education, achieve occupational success, acquire wealth, enjoy better health and produce offspring that will in turn share the same opportunities.

Privatization of prisons in the United States Research Proposal

Privatization of prisons in the United States - Research Proposal Example Prisoners in all developed society are abhorred by the society and this disgust creates an aversion. The aim of the prison system is to protect the semblance of the society and maintain social order. Historically prison system was used to detain criminals until further punishment was not administered. The prisons were actually dungeons where people were kept for their crimes. Criminals were not sentenced to spend time in jail rather they were either killed or set free and this practice dates back to the time of Old Testament (Griffith, 1993, pp. 91). Since then people were kept in dungeons (similar to present prisons) but the concept of criminal sentencing or jail time was not there. A person was either free or guilty, and a guilty person was punishable by death. The present day prison system came into existence in the middle part of 18th century. During this time criminals were imprisoned as a punishment for their crimes. Societies were actually developing and it was no longer consi dered right to give extreme punishments to every transgressor. Prison system developed in order to keep criminals away from the society and at the same time punishing them for their crimes. The role of Jeremy Bentham, a British philosopher, cannot be ignored in the development of present form of prison system (Jackson. 1997). From 18th century onwards the present day form of prison system came into existence and details were added in later years but the concept of criminal sentencing started from 18 the century. Since then prisons have been in hands of the state and government have operated prisons. It was politically essential for rulers to own and control the prison system so they can avert any revolt from the masses. But today the situation is very different as societies have evolved and they have come up with a refined justice system. There is no need for governments to control the prison system as a criminal justice system is in placed according to the constitution. Therefore i t is argued that in today’s world prison system should be privatized. The development of economic system and introduction of concept of free markets has started a wave of privatization. Governments all over the world are considering opening their economies and promoting private enterprises in order to promote free markets. Similar demand is made with regards to the prison system. Prison systems are directly related to the social justice system of a society therefore privatization of this institution is not very easy. Arguments are made both for and against privatization of prison. This research proposal will deal with the privatization of prison and an attempt will be made to better understand how privatization will have positive or negative effect on the present day prison system. Literature Review Many local governments are thinking of privatization of prisons in order to decrease their work load. It is generally expected that private sector will perform in a more cost effe ctive manner in order to earn profits. Overall efficiency of prison system is expected to increase if prison system is given in the hands of the private sector. But there are also concerns about privatization of prisons as it may lead to social problems. Therefore much research work has been conducted on the feasibility of private prisons. Literature on the subject also focuses on cost efficiency and performance of private prison system. Pr

The Yellow Christ by Paul Gauguin Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Yellow Christ by Paul Gauguin - Assignment Example The essay "The Yellow Christ by Paul Gauguin" explores the artwork by Paul Gauguin called "The Yellow Christ". This painting conveys starkness of the Breton scenery despite gay colors. Women in this painting portray a peasant potency. The outline of image the Christ in the painting and bold shading of women represents Gaugin’s emblematic style. Paul Gauguin uses oil with color pigments forming emulsions for application onto a canvas surface by cloisonnism. The applicator is a paintbrush that spreads the emulsion evenly on a canvas surface. Color pigments are miscible in oil and take a comparatively long period to dry. Shades of colors produced are clear and last for long periods with no risks of fading. Oil and canvas form basic materials for painting since time immemorial. Lines in the â€Å"The Yellow Christ† spread all over its frame. Vertical, horizontal, straight, curvilinear, and contour lines mingle in this painting bringing about diversity. Contour lines represe nt the landscape while straight lines outline the crucifix. The painting is a rectangular frame with dimensions of 92 Ãâ€" 73cm. Shapes of women and Jesus are elliptical and merge with smooth outlines of landscape. â€Å"The Yellow Christ† painting portrays a mixture of primary and secondary colors signifying various features. Yellow color in the painting merges Jesus with the scenery. Shades of blue and black on women in the painting depict contrast between bright and deep colors. Contrast of colors form a balancing relationship in the painting.

Evaluation Of The Language Of Politics Book Essay

Evaluation Of The Language Of Politics Book - Essay Example The book gives various substantial examples of scholarly literature that maintain political languages' aspects as the most important element when using the language of politics. According to Michael, the influence on political thinking establishes politically naivety that closely establishes political philosophies and developments. Moreover, in the book, Michael argues that the importance of relevant language in politics is that it shapes various political views and beliefs that promote peaceful coexistence and development of philosophical, political ideas (Geis 5). The shaping of political factors using relevant language in politics promotes literacy levels among people in the society who embrace the importance of developments through the well-listened communicated language of politics. The book maintains that the use of scholarly literature evokes self-serving political leaders who know the interest of politics and language necessary in the society. Therefore, Michael gives various aspects associated with the shaping of politics as the importance of language used in politics that maintains societal literacy levels on politics as presented in the book, the language of Politics.The importance of the use of relevant language and politics engages aspects of political events and developments needed by experienced people in the society. Geis (4) argues that the use of appropriate language in a political field tolerates events that give meanings of languages with depicted developments.

Probation Client Needs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Probation Client Needs - Assignment Example This program’s aims are to reduce the drug use and drug dependency of female inmates on parole and probation. It is a holistic program that also includes skills training as well as family and other types of counseling as well as recreational and social activities (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (b), 2013). Another similar program is also in use in California for the men and this one also aims at reducing the recidivism rates among the male inhabitants that have been paroled from Californian correctional facilities (Study evaluates substance abuse in probation, parole admissions (a), 2011). This has also had a positive influence in reducing the rates of return to custody of male inmates especially those on probation and released early on parole (Hinkle, 2008). Another program is the Dallas County Judicial Treatment Center implemented in Dallas Texas, a residential substance abuse program specifically aimed at those on probation. It aims to reduce the prison overcrowding in the Texas correctional system. It not only includes modern therapeutic substance abuse treatments utilizing the 12-step method but also includes life-skills training, drug education as well as counseling (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Substance Abuse Treatment for Adults in the Criminal Justice System, 2005). These programs have all in addition to reducing the costs of running prisons and alleviating the overcrowding problem in these facilities, also resulted in better results for the offenders, corrections system and the communities in which they are located. 2. These programs have all got as a major strength the fact they have taken a more holistic view of the problems of offenders with substance abuse histories. They also look at other... This essay discusses the parole and probation clients who go into substance abuse programs have shown improvement in more ways than those who do not go through those programs or those who only undergo custodial sentences. The major improvement has been in the area of personal rehabilitation. Criminal behavior brought on by substance abuse can only be reduced if the root cause of the behavior, the substance abuse, is dealt with as only punishing the offender results in him or her returning to the substance abuse on completion of the sentence. Furthermore, if the other usually connected causes of the behavior and substance abuse, such as lack of a job, lack of job skills, lack of housing and a community where drugs are easily available are not tackled at the same time, the offender actually ends up building tolerance and making the substance abuse problem even more serious. All over the US programs that are addressing these root cause of drug-related criminal behavior are producing bet ter results in the rehabilitation of inmates. In conclusion, a program that looks at the needs of the offenders in a more holistic and realistic way stands a better chance of success. Studies have also shown that offender rehabilitation programs that not only include the right kind of treatment for those with substance abuse issues, coupled with the most appropriate community based programs are the most successful when it comes to enabling the criminal justice system impart both punishment and rehabilitation to those convicted of crimes.

Jesus & Mohammed Paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Jesus & Mohammed Paper - Assignment Example Jesus and Mohammed singlehandedly made a greatest impact on the society of their time and shaped the course of history for over two thousand years. Their religions reflected similarities and differences in lives and deaths of both Jesus and Mohammed. Jesus was born 4BC from Virgin Mary and did not have an earthly father but was raised by his mother and stepfather. Mohammed was born 570 CE (Common Era), almost 6 centuries after Jesus, from Abdullah and Aminah, and was raised mostly by his nurse as was customary in the desert countries, as well as grandfather and uncle because his parents and other closest relatives had died when he was just a boy. (Rodinson, 2002, p.46) The lives of these great religious leaders were described in hagiographical books: Jesus’ in Gospels and Mohammed’s in Suras. Jesus was a carpenter and Mohammed was first shepherd and then caravan trader. (Rodinson, 2002, p.58) Jesus was speaking Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek (Peters, 2011, p.45) but did not write any book himself; Mohammed spoke Arabic and left records that were compiled into Quran (Phipps, 1999, p.81). Jesus started his ministry at 30 and continued it for the next 3 years. Most of the time, he was staying in Galilee. It is believed that Mohammed have received a revelation and a call at 40 and ministered for 22 years traveling more widely due to his occupation. (Peters, 2011, p.65) Both Jesus and Mohammed performed miracles. The first miracle Jesus performed was turning water into wine at the wedding party (John 2:1-11); to contrast, Mohammed forbade wine drinking as he considered it â€Å"an abomination of Satan's work† (Quran, Sura 5:90). Jesus attracted people by miracles, signs and sermons (Peters, 2011, p.47) and Mohammed - by his teaching and wisdom. In the Gospel, Jesus is often described in the presence of women; however, there is not a single mention about any relationship or wife. Jesus did not have a wife; he was a celibate (Peters, 2011, p.46). The n umber of Mohammed’s wives is uncertain as they go in Quran unnamed and uncounted (Peters, 2011, p.180). Both spiritual leaders caused religious disruption and brought change to the traditional establishments. Their ministries and teachings led to the new religion creation rather than reformation of the old. Jesus shook Judaism, stating that he was the Son of God, while Mohammed never made such claims. Their messages were contrasting in many ways. Jesus himself did not wage any war and never ordered to kill anyone. To the contrary, he taught to â€Å"turn the other cheek†, did not resist the arrest and discouraged his disciples from the fight. Jesus’ legacy is the religion of pardon, tolerance and love even for the enemies. On the opposite, Mohammed fought in a number of battles, converting captives into Islam; he was granting them forgiveness in exchange for conversion. He wore â€Å"two coats of mail†, swinging the sword and leading Muslims into war (Phi pps, 1999, p.62) He believed that Allah gave him permission to cut infidels (The Quran, Sura 9:5, 29), calling his actions â€Å"Jihad† – â€Å"holy war†. Jesus death was public: he was crucified by Romans at the age 33 as one of the worst criminals, suffered an excruciating pain, was forsaken by all and a mob was spitting on him. However, after such a terrible death, Jesus resurrected and ascended to Heaven. The tomb he was buried in was opened three days after his death by angels. Mohammed

Incapacitation Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Incapacitation - Term Paper Example In the cases that the criminal is not conditioned, by remaining in prison they remain unable to commit further crimes. Collective incapacitation is the implementation of crime-control effects of the present criminal justice system due to incapacitation. Collective incapacitation attempts to prevent crime by increasing the rate and length of time that a broad range of offenders spend in prison. This is done without taking into consideration possible future offenses. Selective incapacitation is an altered form of incapacitation that justifies the practice of giving more dangerous and indefatigable offenders long prison sentences, some of which can be indefinite or extend over numerous life terms. Selective incapacitation focuses more on criminals who are more likely to repeat their offenses in the future or else engage in more dangerous activity upon being released from their initial prison sentence (Auerhahn, 2003). Selective incapacitation is sometimes used on people who are less likely to commit further offenses, ensuring that their one sentence is going to be enough to rehabilitate them. Though collective and selective incapacitation both deal with the implementation of prison time to enable criminal offenders to avoid future offenses, there are differences between the two concepts. The greatest difference between collective and selective incapacitation is the purpose. Collective incapacitation is used for criminal defenders as a whole, though focuses especially on offenders that are not believed to commit further offenses in the future. Selective incapacitation is more picky, focusing on criminals that are at risk for being repeat offenders, or criminals that have no chance at repeating their mistakes after being imprisoned. The effect of incapacitation varies from criminal to criminal (Hawkins & Zimring, 1997). The majority of criminals that